.The Texas Energy Report

February 12, 2025 — In his State of the State address on Sunday, Governor Abbott called for a “Texas-sized” investment in the state’s water infrastructure. The state water plan estimates that demand for water will increase by 9% by 2050, while water supply available during a drought will decline by 18%. So state water planners are understandably concerned we meet might not have enough water to meet our needs in the future, especially as climate change brings more frequent and severe drought and higher temperatures increase evaporation from our reservoirs.

However, creating new water supplies can have a big impact on the environment. New reservoirs, such as the proposed Marvin Nichols reservoir, require flooding vast areas of land and wildlife habitat, often seizing land from unwilling sellers via eminent domain. Ocean desalination can harm sensitive coastal ecosystems. Pumping treated oilfield wastewater into rivers and aquifers could contaminate drinking water supplies.

So, Texas should prioritize water efficiency above increasing supply. We should emphasize measures to reduce water waste over the construction of new reservoirs or pipelines. Conservation is better for the environment and often cheaper than supply-side strategies.

2020 water demand by water use category (acre-feet) – Texas State Water PlanPhoto by Staff | TPIN

Here are three water strategies the Legislature should prioritize to help meet the state’s water needs.

1. Fixing broken municipal water mains: Texas has lost over 88 billion gallons of water due to aging and leaking water infrastructure. Identifying and repairing leaks could save enough water to meet the annual needs of Austin, Fort Worth, El Paso, Laredo, and Lubbock combined. The Governor rightly emphasized the need to “repair pipes to save billions of gallons of water each year.”
2. Agricultural water conservation. Irrigation accounts for the largest share of Texas’ current water use—53 percent of total demand in 2020.  The efficiency of water use in agriculture can be improved with metering of water so farmers better understand how and when water is being used; better management practices such as brush clearing and reduced tillage; adoption of more efficient irrigation technologies, and infrastructure upgrades to limit water losses from canals. Irrigation canals are artificial waterways used for water transportation, typically for agricultural purposes. Lining canals would reduce water loss from ground seepage and smoothing the transport surface increasing water efficiency. According to the Texas International Produce Association, lining all the canals in the Rio Grande Valley could save between 300,000 to 900,000 acre feet of water every single year (the higher number is enough to fill 1.8 million Olympic-sized swimming pools!)

…
 

February 12, 2025 — Texas is known as the energy capital of the world, and for good reason, but the state has fallen behind others in its advancement of nuclear power, so now state leaders are working to change that.

South of Houston, Ft. Bend County Precinct 3 Commissioner Andy Myers is working with Governer Gregg Abbott and lawmakers currently meeting at the State Capitol to greatly increase the number of small nuclear power plants around the state, and the reasons are numerous.

For one thing, the plants are considered a lot safer than the previous generation of nuclear facilities, which have raised concerns for decades because they’ve generated dangerous radioactive waste, and the nation, in all the years since the first nuclear plants more than 65 years ago, still hasn’t settled on a central national depository for that waste.

Commissioner Myers says the new generation of nuclear plants are much…
 

February 3, 2025 — Texas tax income from O&G for the month of January was down slightly from a year earlier, according to the latest figures from the state comptroller.

Natural gas production severance taxes received were down 8% when compared to January 2024, at $174 million.

Oil production tax income for the state was down 6% from the same month a year ago, at $471 million.

Motor fuel tax income received was up 2% from January of last year, at $313 million.

And motor vehicle sales and rental taxes dropped 5% from last year at this time, at $589 million.

Overall state sales tax revenue totaled $4.3 billion in January, 6.8% more than in January 2024, according to Texas Comptroller Glenn Hegar.

“Retail trade, the largest sector, grew by more than …
 

January 29, 2025 — Electric heavy-duty vehicles offer significant advantages, including reduced noise pollution and lower emissions. However, there’s still a disadvantage to overcome—too many heavy-duty electric vehicles (EVs) could overload the grid.

In the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Dr. Thomas Overbye, professor, Dr. Jonathan Snodgrass, a senior research engineer, and electrical engineering graduate students Diana Wallison and Lyric Haylow conducted a three-year project to determine how the grid will be affected if heavy-duty vehicles are electrified in Dallas and Houston, leading to more EVs on Interstate 45.

“In some cases, it would make sense to switch from a diesel truck to an electric truck, especially if they’re just driving in a city, because if those big semis are idling, they’re just burning gas. Whereas if you have an electric truck, you can sit there with zero idle,” Snodgrass said.

“Real pollutants come out of car tailpipes,” Snodgrass said. “If we can reduce or eliminate that, there would be less smog and more efficiency. It’s also it’s just cleaner in general. And imagine if you’re able to reduce traffic noise, especially for people who live along the highways.”

Traditionally, transportation and electric grid researchers don’t often talk to each other, which makes it difficult to determine how much EVs will stress the grid. To conduct adequate EV simulations, you need reliable models of both the transportation system (for instance, how much people drive, where they drive and what the charging demand is going to be) and the grid.

“The problem is that those who model transportation systems oversimplify…
 

January 27, 2025 –– The Electric Reliability Council of Texas, Inc. (ERCOT) Board Selection Committee has two new board members: Alejandro “Alex” Hernandez and Sigmund “Sig” Cornelius, each for three-year terms effective immediately.

January 16, 2025 — Entergy Texas says it’s looking forward to a “more resilient energy future” now that the Public Utility Commission of Texas has unanimously approved Phase I of its Texas Future Ready Resiliency Plan. 

Implementation of the first phase of the company’s resiliency plan is expected over about a three-year period and “includes $137 million in strategic projects to strengthen the Southeast Texas power grid, reduce storm-related outages, and save customers millions in restoration costs over the coming decades.

“Over the next 50 years, these improvements are projected to reduce outage times by an estimated 1 billion minutes, significantly cutting…
 

As colder weather arrives in Texas, the Texas oil and natural gas industry is many months into its preparations for winter weather events to ensure reliable oil and natural gas production and transportation – no matter the weather.

On top of year-round planning, record-breaking natural gas production, increases in natural gas storage capacity and dramatically expanded pipeline takeaway capacity are bolstering Texas’ winter readiness this year. In fact, Texas produces, moves and stores more natural gas than any state in the nation.

On any given day, Texas produces more than three times the natural gas Texans need for electricity. Our storage capacity holds enough natural gas to power Texas for more than 5 months and modern pipelines can safely move more product from the wellhead and storage than ever before – all of which contribute to a Winter Ready Texas.

Operators begin preparing for cold weather months in advance and have extensive resources in place to monitor and prepare for inclement weather on an ongoing basis and utilize best practices and operational plans in order to maximize product flow. Onsite, seasonal weatherization techniques include methanol injection, temperature activated pumps, steamer units, equipment shelters, and insulated critical lines and valves.

Additional and offsite measures also prepare operators to better respond during inclement weather to ensure assets and personnel are safe and able to respond to critical needs.

Examples of additional measures include secure shelter/housing and pre-positioning personnel to be closer to and access assets; having extra methanol and other supplies on trucks; preparing and draining tanks to increase on-site storage and provide a temporary buffer for necessary 3rd party movement of product; pre-inspection of assets prior to weather event; “line-packing” to maximize product and pressurization in pipelines; communication with 3rd party vendors to prepare for inclement weather contingencies; and identification of the most critical assets to help maintain power from electric utilities and keep production online.

Because of legislative and regulatory reforms passed in 2021, operators with facilities that have been required to weatherize must share their emergency preparedness plans with the RRC. Requirements extend to external support operations such as water disposal wells, a necessary function to continue oil and natural gas production.

Even with these winterization techniques in place, production fluctuations are expected during extreme weather conditions. These production challenges are not unique to Texas but occur in much colder climates, confirming that some disruptions are unavoidable.

During significant weather events and expected production fluctuations, daily production combined with natural gas storage provides ample access to product for power generation and local distribution companies that have contracted for these services.

Power generators with firm contracts for supply, storage, and transmission for the volumes they need during extreme weather prove more reliable and resilient. These three items are paramount for generators to manage costs and readily available fuel.

Finally, several recent policy developments can have a positive impact on Texas’ readiness. The voter-approved Texas Energy Fund is a tool to encourage investments in dispatchable generation projects, and the Permian Basin Reliability Plan, addresses growing concerns over insufficient transmission access in the Permian Basin and represents a bold approach to ensure that the electric grid is equipped to meet current and future needs.

The oil and natural gas industry has worked closely with all stakeholders, lawmakers and regulators to develop and advance comprehensive energy solutions designed to keep Texas secure and ready, no matter the weather. We are all in this together and know that proper planning, preparation and coordination go far in ensuring that Texas is winter ready.

January 7, 2024 — The Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) has some concerns over high electricity demand this week.

After issuing a Weather Watch on Sunday (misconstrued by some in the news media as a conservation call) the grid operator on Monday issued an Operating Condition Notice (OCN) for Wednesday, January 8th through Friday, January 10th.

Note: In a statement, ERCOT this week said, ““At this time, grid conditions are expected to be normal, and there is no current expectation of an energy emergency,” ERCOT said in a written statement, adding that it will continue to monitor weather conditions closely.”

An OCN is the first of four levels of communication issued by ERCOT in anticipation of a possible Emergency Condition, in this case “due to the possibility of Freezing…
 

This week’s news of a new Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) report showed that methane emissions from the largest oil and natural gas-producing basins fell 44 percent between 2011-2013; and also dropped in seven oil and natural gas-producing basins by up to 87 percent from 2019-2023. Following the update, Texas Railroad Commissioner Wayne Christian criticized the Biden Administration for creating new rules and taxes on oil and gas producers and power plants:

“President Biden’s own EPA said the quiet part out loud that the industry is already mitigating methane emissions, revealing that the true motive behind his horrendous policies is to squeeze the life out of the oil and gas industry,” said Commissioner Wayne Christian. “Radical environmentalists love to pick and choose ‘science’ that justifies their ‘sky is falling’ narrative that the world is ending and fossil fuels are to blame. But this couldn’t be further from the truth, just like they like to ignore the fact that EPA regulated emissions are down 78 percent in the last fifty years.

President-elect Trump’s number one priority should be to scrap Biden’s onerous and unnecessary methane rules and taxes attacking…
 

December 11, 2024 — The University of Texas at Austin joined top energy companies in issuing a report to the Texas Legislature advising the steps it could take to advance the state’s growing hydrogen industry. The report, issued by the Texas Hydrogen Production Policy (TxH2) Council, provided several key recommendations focusing on safety, environmental protection, and regulatory clarity and efficiency. UT is the only university represented on the council.

“The work carried out by my colleagues and I on the committee will significantly advance the growth of the hydrogen sector in Texas so that we can maintain our unparalleled role as a global leader in all forms of energy production,” said Professor Brian A. Korgel, Ph.D., director of the UT Energy Institute, who serves as one of the 11 members of the council. “It is an honor to contribute to the important work of the Texas Hydrogen Production Policy Council as we seek to ensure that the potential of hydrogen is fully tapped to bring greater economic opportunities and maintain reliable energy supply across Texas.”

The full report “Hydrogen Energy Development in Texas” is available online.

Via UT’s Energy Institute, Bureau of Economic Geology and Center for Electromechanics, among numerous other programs, the University is poised to take a leading role in providing the research and guidance required to implement the recommendations made by the council.

One central recommendation of the report is for development of training and education programs to improve public awareness of hydrogen, increase public acceptance of hydrogen, and enhance safety. UT is uniquely equipped to play a leading role in such programs due to its broad expertise in hydrogen, as well as other sectors and existing programs integral to the broader hydrogen industry, including geothermal, nuclear and solar initiatives…
 

December 5, 2024 — New Mexico is the nation’s second-largest oil and gas producer (behind Texas). It is the home to cutting-edge federal research and houses a busy port of entry through which a growing volume of goods passes from Mexico, the nation’s No. 1 trade partner.

Yet, New Mexico’s economy has historically lagged other Southwest economies and the nation. It ranks low in household income and educational attainment, and its population has little changed over the past decade, while the populations in neighboring Texas and Arizona have boomed.

However, 2023 highlighted the state’s considerable upside. New Mexico achieved solid economic growth in part due to a booming energy sector and trade with Mexico.

State builds on a noteworthy 2023

New Mexico’s economy, measured by GDP, notably expanded last year. State output grew 6.8 percent, outpacing the nation’s 2.9 percent increase (Chart 1). Much of this growth was attributable to the burgeoning energy industry. Mining contributed 4.2 percentage points to the New Mexico state GDP in 2023.

Downloadable chart

This is in stark contrast to the sluggish growth persistent through most of the 2010s. Notably, New Mexico’s annual GDP growth averaged 1.0 percent from 2010 through 2022, lagging the nation as a whole, which expanded 2.3 percent annually. By comparison, Texas’ annual GDP growth was 3.3 percent and Arizona’s was 3.1 percent during that period.

Despite the recent gains, the state’s economic output remains relatively small. New Mexico’s GDP was $135 billion in 2023, compared with $2.6 trillion in Texas. Even with record-high levels of energy production, economic growth has cooled slightly this year, though oil price volatility can distort measurement of the value of state-level real (inflation-adjusted) GDP.

Slow job growth rate, sparse population pose challenges

New Mexico is the fifth-largest state by land area, with 121,697 square miles. It is also one of the least-populated states. The economy has long faced significant structural challenges. The state labor market is relatively small, with just 888,000 on nonfarm payrolls, a fraction of the 14.2 million jobs in Texas. The state’s annual job growth rate of 0.7 percent from 2010 through 2019—compared with 2.3 percent for Texas—has historically trailed the nation (Chart 2).

Downloadable chart

This sluggish pace reflects a lack of economic diversity and investment, as well as reliance on government and tourism jobs.

New Mexico had 2.1 million residents in 2023. The state’s population grew just 2.3 percent from 2010 to 2023, compared with the nation’s increase of 8.3 percent (Chart 3). The state has experienced both domestic outmigration and slow natural increase (births minus deaths). More New Mexicans have left the state than new residents have arrived every year since 2012, with the exception of 2020.

Downloadable chart

New Mexico’s stagnant population and socioeconomic issues, such as low educational attainment and high poverty rates, pose additional constraints. The state’s labor force participation rate of 57.5 percent in August 2024 is below its neighbors—Texas (64.4 percent) and Arizona (62.3 percent). However, Texas and New Mexico unemployment rates were identical, 4.1 percent, in August.

Additionally, Texas and Arizona attract businesses more readily than New Mexico, reflecting the benefits of their strong and diverse business sectors. New Mexico ranks in the middle of the pack in business tax climate at No. 23, according to the Washington, D.C.-based think tank the Tax Foundation. That is less favorable than Texas at No.13 and Arizona at No.14.

Educational attainment also presents a challenge to workforce development. While the share of the population 25 years and older with a high school diploma or a college degree has gradually increased in the past 10 years, the state trailed the U.S. In 2023, 31.6 percent of New Mexico’s population 25 years and older had a bachelor’s degree or higher versus 36.2 percent of the U.S.’s population.

Median household income in 2023 was $60,980 compared with $80,610 nationally. Nearly one-fifth of New Mexicans (17.8 percent) lived in poverty in 2023, according to American Community Survey data. The state also has a higher rate of food insecurity relative to the nation.

Roughly 10 percent of the state is Native American, including a portion of the Navajo Nation, which extends across the Four Corners region into Arizona and Utah and operates as a sovereign nation with its own separate administrative structure. Indigenous peoples have some of the highest poverty rates in the state at 30.5 percent. Those living on tribal land often confront poorly developed infrastructure and little economic growth.

Energy fuels economic expansion

Challenging the state’s sluggish past, the energy sector has led the recent turnaround in state output. Mining has long been a major industry in New Mexico. Miners historically sought out precious metals as well as fuel resources, such as coal and uranium. More recently, hydraulic…
 

December 5, 2024 — R Street recently concluded a series that evaluated state and local permitting challenges to various energy infrastructure types, with a focus on the resources needed for electricity generation. That research was prompted by anecdotal evidence suggesting an overall worsening environment for the permitting of energy infrastructure at the state and local level. Our research confirmed this impression, though to different extents for different energy types. In this piece, we examine energy infrastructure types aggregately, rather than individually, to inform policy recommendations that are applicable to improving and expediting state and local permitting of energy infrastructure.

Two simultaneous market forces are putting increased pressure on the market entry of new electricity generating resources and related infrastructure in the United States: rising electricity demand and the need to replace existing generation.

From 2010-2020, annual electricity consumption was relatively stagnant, with retail sales declining by about one percent over the same period. But, as Figure 1 shows, total electricity demand has been rising since 2020, increasing by 144 terawatt hours (TWhs), or 4 percent.

Figure 1: Retail Sales of Electricity in the United States

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Electricity Data,” U.S. Department of Energy, last…
 

December 5, 2024 — After nearly a year of extensive analysis, the Texas Hydrogen Production Policy Council has delivered a report to the Texas Legislature outlining actionable steps to bolster Texas’ leadership in the hydrogen industry.

The 11-member Council, established by the Legislature and chaired by RRC Chairman Christi Craddick, was tasked with making recommendations to lawmakers on updates necessary for the oversight and regulation of production, pipeline transportation, and storage of hydrogen.

The hydrogen industry is already well-established in Texas, primarily serving the petrochemical and refining industries. For over 50 years, hydrogen has been produced in dozens of facilities throughout the state. Pure hydrogen pipelines, extending over 1,000 miles, have been operating safely in Texas, supporting the industry’s robust infrastructure.

Texas’ existing hydrogen infrastructure and comprehensive regulatory framework for safety and environmental compliance have contributed to the state’s current standing as a global leader in conventional hydrogen production.

While the report recommends that Texas leverage its existing regulatory structure to lead the charge on hydrogen policy, it also specifies areas…
 

December 5, 2024 — Lithium-sulfur batteries have never lived up to their potential as the next generation of renewable batteries for electric vehicles and other devices. But ​SMU mechanical engineer Donghai Wang and his research team have found a way to make these Li-S batteries last longer – with higher energy levels – than existing renewable batteries. 

The research team has been able to prevent Li-S batteries from producing an unwanted side effect known as polysulfide dissolution that appears over time, shortening their lifespan. 

“This breakthrough could lead to more durable, long-lasting batteries,” said Wang, the Brown Foundation Chair of Mechanical Engineering and Professor of Mechanical Engineering at SMU Lyle. His research focuses on the design and synthesis of nanostructured functional materials and energy storage technologies like Li-ion batteries and also beyond Li-ion technology.

A study published in the journal Nature Sustainability shows that the team’s newly developed hybrid polymer network cathode allows Li-S batteries to deliver over 900 mAh/g (milliampere-hours per gram mass), compared to the typical…
 

By Alex Mills

America’s energy policy is in for a major overhaul.

President-elect Trump announced this week the appointment of two key members to his cabinet relating to energy issues. North Dakota Governor Doug Burgum will serve as Secretary of Interior and Colorado businessman Christopher Wright was nominated as Secretary of Energy. Both must be confirmed by the Senate.

Burgum also will serve as the chair of the new National Energy Council, which will consist of all departments and agencies involved in the permitting, production, generation, distribution, regulation, transportation, of all forms of American energy, and will therefore have a seat on the National Security Council, Trump said,

The National Energy Council will coordination among federal agencies to advance American energy. “By establishing U.S. energy dominance, we can jumpstart our economy, drive down costs for consumers and generate billions in revenue to help reduce our deficit,” Burgum said.

Before entering politics, Burgum headed a software company, which was acquired by Microsoft in 2001 and has been in a variety of businesses until he was elected Governor in 2016.

Burgum ran for President but failed to gather enough support and closed his campaign in December 2023.

North Dakota is the third largest …
 

U.S. production of associated-dissolved natural gas, or associated natural gas, increased 7.9% in 2023 compared with 2022, averaging 17.1 billion cubic feet per day (Bcf/d) last year, according to data from Enverus Drillinginfo. Associated natural gas production, which is natural gas produced by wells that predominantly produce oil, comes mainly from five major oil-producing regions in the United States—the Permian, Bakken, Eagle Ford, Anadarko, and Niobrara.

Record U.S. crude oil production in 2023 generated large volumes of associated natural gas. The Permian Basin in West Texas and southeastern New Mexico accounted for 46% of U.S. crude oil production in 2023 and was the largest source of U.S. associated gas production last year at 11.5 Bcf/d. In 2023, around two-thirds of total U.S. associated natural gas production came from the Permian region, similar to 2022.

In 2023, 2.3 Bcf/d of associated gas was produced in North Dakota’s Bakken region, which accounted for 70% of the region’s total natural gas production—the largest share among the five oil-producing regions. The Eagle Ford region in southern Texas was the source of 1.8 Bcf/d of associated…
 

By Alex Mills

Donald J. Trump’s victory is welcome news to many companies including those in the energy business.

There is no doubt that Trump supports a strong domestic oil and gas industry. His “drill, baby, drill” slogan was believed to signal to the industry and others that he support policies that will keep the U.S. as the largest oil and natural gas producing country in the world.

Even though crude oil prices remained relatively flat at $71 per barrel, the stock market surged the day after the election. It was the fifth-best one-day on U.S. stock markets, according to the Wall Street Journal. The Dow rose some 1,500 points a 3% increase for a record high. The Nasdaq and the S&P 500 both exceeded 2% gains, while the Russell 2000 jumped 4%.

Energy sector stocks increased an average of 3%. The stocks of integrated oil companies ExxonMobil and Chevron rose 5% and 7% respectively and refiner Valero witnessed a 10% rise while midstream pipeline operator Kinder Morgan’s stock was up 8% during the week ending on Nov. 6.

Utility stocks also had gains. NRG had a 2% rise and CenterPoint was…
 

By Alex Mills

Fifty years ago, America’s economy and national security was thrown into chaos following the oil embargo. As a major importer of oil, the United States suffered from higher oil prices, shortages of petroleum products form coast-to-coast, gasoline lines, and inflation.

Much has changed since 1974. Today, the U.S. is a net exporter of oil and other energy sources, according to a report from the Energy Information Administration at the U.S. Department of Energy.

“In 1974, the United States consumed more energy than it produced domestically and was a net importer of energy from other countries,” EIA stated in its recent Monthly Energy Report. “Today, the United States produces more energy than it consumes domestically and is a net exporter of energy to other countries.”

EIA said U.S. energy production increased 68% from 1974 to January-June 2024 (the most recent data available).

“Increased crude oil and natural gas production, brought about by improvements in drilling techniques such as hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling beginning in the 2000s, drove much of the growth in total energy production,” EIA said.

“The increase in energy production over the last two decades has turned the United States into the world’s largest crude oil and natural gas producer today and from a net energy importer to a net energy exporter starting in 2019,” EIA said. “U.S. net energy imports in the…
 

Natural gas produced from the three largest tight oil-producing plays in the United States has increased in the last decade. Natural gas comprised 40% of total production from the Bakken, the Eagle Ford, and the Permian compared with 29% in 2014.

Combined crude oil and natural gas production from these plays more than doubled over this period as hydraulic fracturing—also known as fracking—and horizontal drilling have allowed producers to access and extract more crude oil and natural gas from tight formations. However, production of associated natural gas, which is natural gas produced from predominantly oil wells, has increased more rapidly from these tight oil plays. Natural gas production from these plays more than tripled—an increase of 22 billion cubic feet per day (Bcf/d)—over the period compared with crude oil output, which more than doubled—an increase of 4 million barrels per day (b/d).

We define oil wells as those with a gas-to-oil ratio (GOR) of less…
 

October 22, 2024 — The University of Texas says it has a “new cooling technology could change how heat is managed in electronic devices—from tiny semiconductors to massive data centers.”

The university writes that “a team led by scientists and engineers at The University of Texas at Austin have created a new “thermal interface material” that could organically remove heat from high-powered electronic devices, reducing or even eliminating the need for extensive cooling. The new material, made from a mix of liquid metal and aluminum nitride, is much better at conducting heat than current commercial materials, making it optimal for cooling.

“The research is published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology.

“The power consumption of cooling infrastructure for energy-intensive data centers and other large electronic systems is skyrocketing,” said Guihua Yu, professor in the Cockrell School of Engineering’s Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering and Texas Materials Institute. “That trend isn’t dissipating anytime soon, so it’s critical to develop new ways, like the material we’ve created, for efficient and sustainable cooling of devices operating at kilowatt levels and even higher power.”

Cooling accounts for about 40% of data center energy usage, or 8 terawatt-hours annually. The researchers estimate their technology could shave 13% off that cooling requirement—or 5% off overall data center energy usage—a significant savings if applied across the industry. The heat dissipation capabilities also allow for significant growth in processing power.

The new discovery is part of a larger effort to realize the potential of thermal interface materials. These materials are designed to dissipate heat generated by electronic devices, reducing the need to cool those devices.

However, a gap exists between how much cooling these materials should theoretically be able to achieve and what they’ve done in real-world tests.